The Urinary and Reproductive Systems: The Final Structures

So you have finally made it to the final week of anatomy!!! Hooray!!! You are now all masters of the human body, or at least close to it. So now what do you do? Well, you first master this last week of terms and then study, study, STUDY for the final examination. Remember it is only two weeks away, so get right on top of it!!! I am confident you will all do great as you keep to your studies and study a little bit every day.

This week is just full of fun and interesting structures. The Urinary and Reproductive systems are complete miracles when you ponder what they can accomplish. What man-made system do you know, that can bring life into the world? What man-made system do you know of that can filter 440 gallons of blood each day without breaking down? There is none!! That is why the human body is the perfect creation because there is nothing in the world that can compare to it. Every time I think about the divinity of our bodies, I am reminded of an ever loving Heavenly Father who created these bodies in the first place so that we could have a fullness of joy.

Now, here are a few clarifications and ways to remember this week's terms...

The Urinary System

Hilus: Portion of the kidney where blood vessels, nerves and ureter enter and exit.

Cortex: Most superficial layer of the kidney. Structures within the cortex are...

• Glomerulus
• Proximal Convoluted Tubule
• Distal Convoluted Tubule

Medulla: Most deep layer of the kidney. Structures within the cortex are...

• Renal Pyramids
• Nephron Loop
• Collecting Ducts

Papilla: Tip of the Renal Pyramid

Minor Calyx: region extending from the papilla

Major Calyx: Joining of two or three minor calyx

Renal Pelvis: Joining of two or three major calyx

Ureter: Structure that carries urine to the bladder. Begins when the renal pelvis becomes uniform shaped.

Internal Urethral Sphincter: Found inferior to the bladder; prevents urine from leaving the bladder and entering the urethra.

External Urethral Sphincter: Voluntary muscle found at the urogenital diaphragm; inability to control results in a condition call incontinence.

The Female Reproductive System

Ovary: Found lateral to the uterus and produce ova(eggs) and secrete estrogen and progesterone

Fimbrae: Ciliated projections that cover the lateral portion of the ovary; receive the ova when it is released

Uterus: Three layered sack

1. Perimetrium: Most superficial layer; visceral peritoneum
2. Myometrium: Thick middle layer; composed of smooth muscle
3. Endometrium: Inner mucosal layer; place of implantation (two layers)
   

• Stratum Functionalis: layer that degenerates during menstruation
• Stratum Basalis: layer that builds up the endometrium (stratum functionalis) and prepares for implantation.

Fundus: Rounded, superior portion of the uterus

Cervix: Narrow, inferior portion of the uterus

External Os: opening of the uterus to the vagina; dilates during fetal delivery

Vagina: Tube inferior to the unterus; lies posterior to the urethra and anterior to the anus

• Fornix: superior portion of the vagina; surrounds the cervix
• Vaginal Rugae: ridges of the internal vaginal lining; permit stretching of the birth canal
• Vaginal Orifice: external opening of the vagina
• Vestibular Glands: pea shaped glands located on each side of the vagina; found deep to the labia majora

Vulva: Triangular shaped region consisting of...

• Mons Pubis: fatty tissue laying over the symphysis pubis
  
• Labia Majora: found lateral to the vaginal opening and continuous with the mons pubis
  
• Labia Minora: medial to the labia minora
• Clitoris: tissue found anterior to the urethral orifice
  
• Vestibule: space enclosed by labia minora; contains the vaginal and urethral openings

Perineum: Diamond shaped region containing the anal, vaginal and urethral openings

Breast: gland of milk secretion

• Mammary Glands: secretory structures
• Lactiferous Duct: passageway of milk from the mammary gland to the nipple

The Male Reproductive System

Scrotum: compartment external to the pelvic cavity; supports and protects the testes.

• Median Septum: Divides the scrotum into two compartments, one for each testis; serves as a protection shield if one testis becomes infected or cancerous.
• Dartos Muscle: smooth muscle found in the inner wall of the scrotum; functions to keep the testes three degrees below normal body temperature
• Cremaster Muscle: Skeletal muscle found deep to the dartos muscle; continuous with the internal abdominal oblique.

**Tennis Ball Analogy

• Tennis ball: Testis
• Tennis ball in sock: Dartos muscle
• Hand under sock: Cremaster muscle
  

Testis: paired oval shaped organ; sperm and hormone production

• Tunica Albuginea: Fibrous connective tissue layer that directly covers the testes
• Seminiferous Tubules: coiled sperm producing tubes within the lobes of the testis
• Efferent Ductules: take sperm from the seminiferous tubules to the epididymis

Epididymis: place where sperm mature; learn how to swim; "Swimming School"

Spermatic Cord: Cord composed of ductus deferens, cremaster muscle, testicular arteries, veins and nerves

Seminal Vesicle: secretes fructose to give sperm energy; lunch booth

Ejaculatory Duct: one inch long tube; formed by the union of the ductus deferens and seminal vesicle

Prostate Gland: lies inferior to the bladder

Bulbourethral Gland: lies inferior to the prostate; secretes mucus into the urethra

Urethra: Three separate areas...

• Prostatic Urethra: part that passes through the prostate
• Membranous Urethra: part that passes through the urogenital diaphragm
• Spongy Urethra: last and longest part that is located in the body of the penis

**Think P.M.S to remember these structures in order

Glans: enlarged terminal portion of the penis

Prepuce: continuous skin covering of glans; also known as the foreskin; removed by circumcision

Body of Penis: composed of three chambers of erectile tissue

• Corpora Cavernosa: paired columns
• Corpus Spongiosum: tissue that surrounds the spongy urethra
• Dorsal Veins: drain blood from the penis
• Deep Arteries: one locate in each corpora cavernosa; supply erectile bodies with blood
  

**So there you have it!!! With these notes and your dedication to the ol' anatomy open lab, you will be masters in no time of the urinary and reproductive systems. Don't miss out on the mock quiz in lab next week. It will be very much worth your time and energy. Good luck and happy studying!!!

The Digestive and Respiratory Systems

For the record, there are only 2 quizzes left in anatomy! Hooray!!! Okay, you can do your happy dance now. Time really flies when you are learning alot and working hard. We definitely do alot of work and learning in this class, especially memorizing. Just think, ever since this class started, you now know so much more than the average person. You can name the bones, the muscles and describe what happens during fetal circulation!!! Not many people can do that. You deserve a pat on the back!!! This week, our focus is on the Respiratory and Digestive systems. Looking at the terms, it may seem like a mouthful, but these structures are so much fun and there is much application to help in your learning.

The Respiratory and Digestive systems are amazing machines. Just think, without the respiratory system, you would not be able to wake up in the morning and smell the fresh morning air. Without the Digestive system, you would not be able to eat the foods you love!!! Now I love to eat, and what a sad world it would be if we could not enjoy the tastes from around the world. These two systems help us to enjoy alot of the simple things in life. Never take for granted the wonderful things your body allows you to do and experience. Now, here are some interesting facts to wrap your brain around:

The Respiratory System

• Our nose hairs help clean and warm the air that we breathe.
• The right lung is slightly larger than the left lung.
• The surface area of the lung is roughly the size of a tennis court.
• The capillaries in the lungs would extend 1600 kilometers if placed end to end.
• We lose half a liter of water a day through breathing. This is the water vapor we see when we breathe onto glass.

The Digestive System

• Two pints of saliva are produced each day.
• Muscles in the digestive tract contract in waves to move food along. So if you are standing on your head, food will still end up in your stomach.
• The small intestine is three grown men tall and two fingers wide.
• Food stays in your small intestine anywhere from one to four hours.
• We eat about 500 Kg per year
• The Pancreas produces digestive juices and helps in controlling blood sugar
• The Gall Bladder stores bile which helps in the digestion of dietary fat

**Now for some memorizing tid bits for the week!!!

Conducting Passages

Choanae: space between the nasal cavity and nasopharynx

Pharynx: divided into three regions

• nasopharynx: starts at the choanae and ends at the uvula (in the nasal region)
• oropharynx: starts at the uvula and ends at the level of the hyoid bone (think oral region)
• laryngopharynx: starts at the hyoid bone and ends at the bottom of the cricoid cartilage (the region where you find the larynx)

Tonsils: Lymphatic tissue

• tubal tonsil: forms around the opening of the auditory tube. Looks like a candy cane.
• pharyngeal tonsil: located on the posterior wall of the nasopharynx
• palatine tonsil: paired tonsils located at the back of the throat (usually removed)
• lingual tonsil: located on the posterior surface of the tongue (lingual means tongue)

Larynx: Continuous with the trachea; production of sound

• Thyroid Cartilage: big on the anterior side, small on the posterior side. Gives rise to the "Adam's apple."
• Cricoid Cartilage: small on the anterior side, big on the posterior side.
• Arytenoid Cartilage: superior to the cricoid cartilage on the posteior side. Forms a triangle and serves as attachment site for vocal cords
• Epiglottis: tissue that closes off the wind pipe to prevent choking

Mechanics of Pulmonary Ventilation

Internal Intercostal Muscles: can found on both the anterior and posterior sides of the rib cage. Muscles fibers point in an upwards direction

External Intercostal Muscles: can be found only on the anterior side of the rib cage. Muscles fibers point in a downwards direction.

The Mouth

Salivary Glands

• Parotid: located anterior to the ear. Largest of the salivary glands.
• Submandibular: located under the mandible. Sub in latin means "under"
• Subligual: located under the tongue

Serous Membranes

Mesentary Proper: peritoneum that holds the small intestines in place

Lesser Omentum: tissue that comes off of the lesser curvature of the stomach

Greater Omentum: tissue that comes off of the greater curvature of the stomach. Known as the apron that drapes over most of the abdominal organs.

Gastrointestinal Tube

Stomach

• Cardiac Sphincter: juction between the esophagus and the stomach
• Cardiac Region: region of stomach attached to the esophagus
• Fundus: dome shaped part of the stomach
• Body: middle region inferior to the fundus
• Gastric Rugae: folds on the inside stomach wall
• Pyloric Region: terminal portion of the stomach that leads to the small intestine
• Pyloric Sphincter: junction between the stomach and small intestine

Small Intestine

• Three regions; DONT JUMP IN -> Duodenum, Jejunum, Ileum
• Plicae Circulares: folds on the inside walls of the small intestine; contain micro villi
• Ileocecal valve: junction between the ileum and the cecum

Large Intestine

• Tenia Coli: shiny band of longitudinal muscle that runs along the entire large intestine. Acts like a draw sting to propel food along to the rectum.
• Haustra: bulges in the large intestine that is caused by the action of the tenia coli
• Epiploic Appendages: fat accumulations of visceral peritoneum on the large intestine
• Hepatic Flexure: Curve in the large intestine that is by the liver
• Splenic Flexure: Curve in the large intestine that is by the spleen
• Internal Anal Sphincter: inside walls of the anal canal; involuntary smooth muscle
• External Anal Sphincter: outside walls of the anal canal; voluntary skeletal muscle

Liver

• Common Hepatic Duct: fusion of the right and left hepatic ducts
• Common Bile Duct: fusion of the common hepatic duct and cystic duct
• Falciform Ligament: ligament that separates the right and left lobes of the liver

The Veins, Lymphatic system, Endocrine system, Fetal Circulation..."The List Goes On"

So you have conquered the heart and arteries. No big deal, right? Now you have other things to focus on....the veins. And to make your life more enjoyable, three extra body systems. By this point in the semester, you all are champions at the game of anatomy. Or you may just be burnt out of school, can't wait for the semester to end and wish that anatomy would be over right now. Not to worry, there are only 4 more lab weeks and 3 more quizzes. Wow, where has the time gone? Not to worry because this week, what you have to know really is not that bad when you put it to a good perspective. Let's take the veins for example. You may be thinking, "Man, I just got through memorizing the arteries...how can I do another whole load of veins?" Well, you are in luck. Arteries and veins all share the same name with a few minor exceptions. Pretty cool huh? So if you know where the axillary artery is, you will find the axillary vein laying right next to it. Oh, now you know what that dark purple thing was that was sitting next to the artery you learned last week. :)

A vital skill to have in anatomy, at least up to this point, is being able to recognize the difference between arteries, veins, and nerves. At first, they may look all the same but with practice it will become very evident which is which. This skill will be vital in your performance on the final midterm exam. You may name a term right, but if you do not denote whether it is a nerve, artery or vein correctly, you will lose points. This may seem intimidating right now, but with good practice and a little patience, it will come very easily to you. That is a solid promise I can make, but make sure you put in some good practice.

So here are a few pointers in denoting the difference between arteries, veins and nerves:

1. Arteries are pink and puffy. They hold their shape because their middle, called the tunica media, is thick and muscular.
2. Veins are dark and flat. They don't hold their shape like unto arteries because their tunica media is smaller. Also, the movement of blood back to the heart is controlled by muscle contraction.
3. Nerves are peach colored and striated. If you look closely on a nerve, you can see striations that denote the individual neurons. Remember their are only a handful of nerves that you need to know for this class. Master the nerves, and then you can be confident that everything else is an artery or vein.

**Take these pointers to heart and go study like mad in the open lab!!!

Now for a few ways to help make these terms stick to your brain:

The Veins - each branch is the beginning of a new name.

**Remember, all the veins share the same name as the arteries with a few exceptions.

Veins of the Arm

• Internal Jugular Vein: First branch off the subclavian vein and runs up the side of the neck.
• External Jugular Vein: Second branch off the subclavian vein and is lateral to the internal jugular vein.
• Cephalic Vein: Last branch off the subclavian vein; wraps around the pectoralis major muscle, runs along the lateral side of the arm and attaches on the radial side of the hand.
• Basilic Vein: Runs down the medial side of the arm and attaches onto the ulnar side.
• Median Cubital Vein: Lays anterior to the elbow and is the connection point of the cephalic and basilic vein. Most common spot to draw blood.

Veins of the Thoracic Cavity

• Azygos Vein: branch off the superior vena cava; receives blood from the posterior thoracic region.

Veins of the Abdominal Cavity

1. Hepatic Portal System: S.I.S. G (going from left to right)

• Superior Mesenteric Vein
• Inferior Mesenteric Vein
• Splenic Vein
• Gastric Vein

**All branches come off the hepatic portal vein. Similar to the celiac trunk in its many arterial branches.

• Gastro-omental (Gastroepiploic) Vein: any vein that you seen within the adipose tissue coming off the inferior portion of the stomach.

Veins of the Leg

• Great Saphenous Vein: You can't miss this one! The longest vein to be seen; originates on the femoral region and reaches all the way down and connects on the foot. Common vein extracted for bypass heart surgeries. Can survive without a great saphenous vein.

The Lymphatic System

• Thoracic Duct: Found posterior to the heart, between the esophagus and azygos vein. Drains lymph from the lower and left upper body into the left subclavian vein.
• Right Lymphatic Duct: Currently have no cadaver dissections. Drains lymph from the right upper body region.
• Cisterna Chyli: Found in the upper abdominal region between the inferior vena cava and descending aorta.
• Lymph Nodes: Located in the neck, armpit, thoracic, abdominal, pelvis and groin regions. Lymph is filtered in these regions.

The Endocrine System: Make sure you understand what each endocrine organ looks like and the hormones it secretes.

Anterior Pituitary Gland: F.L.A.T.P.G.M

• Follicle-Stimulating Hormone(FSH)
• Luteinizing Hormone(LH)
• Adrenocorticotropic Hormone(ACTH)
• Thyroid Stimulating Hormone(TSH)
• Prolactin(PRL)
• Growth Hormone(GH)
• Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone(MSH)

Posterior Pituitary Gland

• Oxytocin
• Antidiuretic Hormone(ADH)

Thyroid Hormone/Parathyroid Hormone

• Calcitonin: keeps calcium in the bone
• Parathyroid: Keeps calcium high: thy-high

Pancreas Hormones

• Glucagon: secreted when glucose is gone (increases blood sugar)
• Insulin: takes glucose in (decrease blood sugar)

Corticosteriods

• CACA: Corticosteroids -> Aldosterone -> Cortisol -> Androgens

Fetal Circulation

• Placenta: where maternal and fetal blood exchange, nutrients, waste products and gases
• Umbilical Cord: contains one vein and two arteries; the vein contains oxygen rich blood and the arteries contain oxygen poor blood.
• Ductus Venosus: bypasses the hepatic portal system in the liver
• Foramen Ovale: opening in the interatrial septum; bypasses the pulmonary circulation
• Ductus Arteriosus: sometimes blood will miss passing through the foramen ovale, so this structure will shunt blood that enters the pulmonary trunk into the aortic arch.

Adult Derivatives of Fetal Circulation

• Foreman Ovale = Fossa Ovalis
• Umbilical Vein(intra-abdominal part) = Ligamentum Teres
• Ductus Venosus = Ligamentum Venosum
• Umbilical arteries and abdominal ligaments = Medial umbilical ligaments and superior vesicular artery(supplies bladder)
• Ductus Arteriosus = Ligamentum Arteriosum

"From My Heart to Your Heart"

WOW!!! Students this past week completed their first big lab exam. Talk about intensity!!! The open lab was in operation every hour on the hour and was filled to capacity. Now that it is done and over with, students must kick themselves back into the gear and finish off strong their last few weeks. It is half way over now!!! Yet there is still much to learn and much more of the human body to explore. How exciting!!!

The focus of this weeks lab is the heart and arteries. These structures combined, compose of the machinery that carry oxygen rich blood to supply nourishment to many parts of the body. Your heart beats about 100,000 times in one day and about 35 million times in a year. During an average lifetime, the human heart will beat more than 2.5 billion times. Also, your body has about 5.6 liters (6 quarts) of blood. This 5.6 liters of blood circulates through the body three times every minute. In one day, the blood travels a total of 19,000 km (12,000 miles)-- that's four times the distance across the US from coast to coast. There is no machine like the heart!!! If one were to try and compose a machine that performed like the heart, it would break down in a manner of days due to overload and stress. It truly is amazing that with each day that passes by, our heart is working off the clock, 24/7.

The neat thing about this week is that some of the structures taught, you already know. Some were presented the very first week of class in lecture. Now it is a matter of digging out that old information and applying it now. Here are just a few things to remember to help you in your studies this week:

1. Know the pathway of blood well. It may sound unimportant, but those who know the pathway of blood, find it easier to master the heart structures. You have to know it for lecture too.
2. Know the body regions. When working with the arteries, they are all named by body region. Even though it looks like one continuous artery, different areas of the body change its name. They are like some streets; even though you don't turn off, their names still change. Here are a few examples:

• Axillary region: Axillary artery
• Brachial region: Brachial artery
• Femoral Region: Femoral artery
• Running under the clavicle: Subclavian artery

**Now for a few mnemonics and study tips...

Protective Layers of the Heart: think of the "fist in the balloon model."

• Outside of the balloon: Parietal Pericardium
• Space in between the balloon and hand: Pericardial Cavity
• Covering the fist: Visceral Pericardium (Epicardium)

**Think of the heart protective layers this way: from superficial to deep, their names go alphabetically.

Layers of the Heart

Epicardium: Outermost layer; interchanges its name with the visceral pericardium

Myocardium: muscular layer

Endocardium: fills the heart wall; contains several other structures

• Trabeculae Carne (Cross Bars of Flesh): look for the mesh networks of crossing tissue
• Chordae Tendinae: Chord-like
• Papillary muscle: anchors the Chordae Tendinae to the heart wall.

Heart Valves

Right atrioventricular (tricuspid) valve: (RAT) try to choose the right

Left atrioventricular (mitral or bicuspid) valve: (LAB or LAMB)

Pulmonary valve: valve directing blood from the right ventricle to the pulmonary trunk.

Aortic valve: valve directing blood from the left ventricle to the ascending aorta.

**Metal probe test: when studying the heart, take some time to place a metal probe through a valve and lay it down on a tray. You will observe that a metal probe in the tricuspid or bicuspid valve will lay straight up and down. A metal probe in the pulmonary or aortic valve will lay at an angle, either to the left or right.

Arteries in the Body

Arteries from the Aortic Arch

Ascending Aorta -> Brachiocephalic artery -> Left Common Carotid Artery -> Left Subclavian Artery

A B C 's

Intercostal Artery: "in" between the ribs (in the costal groove)

Internal Thoracic Artery: "inside" - internal side of the thoracic cage

**You can find this artery coming off the right subclavian artery and on the detached rib cage.

Celiac Trunk: the branches coming off the trunk fit to the saying of Salt Lake City.

1. Splenic Artery: Salt
   
2. Left Gastric Artery: Lake
   
3. Commom Hepatic Artery: City
   

Latin Origins of Structures

1. Gastric - Stomach
2. Pulmonary - Lungs
3. Coronary - Heart
4. Hepatic - Liver
5. Mesentery - Intestines
6. Renal - Kidney
7. Suprarenal - Adrenal Gland
8. Celiac - Abdominal
9. Axillary - Arm Pit
10. Popliteal - Knee Cap
11. Gonadal - Gonads
12. Femoral - Femur
13. Iliac - Ilium
14. Brachial - Upper Arm

**Well there you have it for this week!!! Remember that we start learning the veins next week. Lucky for you, most of the arteries we have just learned share the same name with the veins. So start now getting used to ending each term with artery, vein, nerve or vessels. This will become very important when it comes time for the final. These endings are a matter of whether or not you receive full credit, even if you technically got the answer right. Good luck in all your studies!!! Keep going, you are nearly half way done!!!