The Urinary and Reproductive Systems: The Final Structures

So you have finally made it to the final week of anatomy!!! Hooray!!! You are now all masters of the human body, or at least close to it. So now what do you do? Well, you first master this last week of terms and then study, study, STUDY for the final examination. Remember it is only two weeks away, so get right on top of it!!! I am confident you will all do great as you keep to your studies and study a little bit every day.

This week is just full of fun and interesting structures. The Urinary and Reproductive systems are complete miracles when you ponder what they can accomplish. What man-made system do you know, that can bring life into the world? What man-made system do you know of that can filter 440 gallons of blood each day without breaking down? There is none!! That is why the human body is the perfect creation because there is nothing in the world that can compare to it. Every time I think about the divinity of our bodies, I am reminded of an ever loving Heavenly Father who created these bodies in the first place so that we could have a fullness of joy.

Now, here are a few clarifications and ways to remember this week's terms...

The Urinary System

Hilus: Portion of the kidney where blood vessels, nerves and ureter enter and exit.

Cortex: Most superficial layer of the kidney. Structures within the cortex are...

• Glomerulus
• Proximal Convoluted Tubule
• Distal Convoluted Tubule

Medulla: Most deep layer of the kidney. Structures within the cortex are...

• Renal Pyramids
• Nephron Loop
• Collecting Ducts

Papilla: Tip of the Renal Pyramid

Minor Calyx: region extending from the papilla

Major Calyx: Joining of two or three minor calyx

Renal Pelvis: Joining of two or three major calyx

Ureter: Structure that carries urine to the bladder. Begins when the renal pelvis becomes uniform shaped.

Internal Urethral Sphincter: Found inferior to the bladder; prevents urine from leaving the bladder and entering the urethra.

External Urethral Sphincter: Voluntary muscle found at the urogenital diaphragm; inability to control results in a condition call incontinence.

The Female Reproductive System

Ovary: Found lateral to the uterus and produce ova(eggs) and secrete estrogen and progesterone

Fimbrae: Ciliated projections that cover the lateral portion of the ovary; receive the ova when it is released

Uterus: Three layered sack

1. Perimetrium: Most superficial layer; visceral peritoneum
2. Myometrium: Thick middle layer; composed of smooth muscle
3. Endometrium: Inner mucosal layer; place of implantation (two layers)
   

• Stratum Functionalis: layer that degenerates during menstruation
• Stratum Basalis: layer that builds up the endometrium (stratum functionalis) and prepares for implantation.

Fundus: Rounded, superior portion of the uterus

Cervix: Narrow, inferior portion of the uterus

External Os: opening of the uterus to the vagina; dilates during fetal delivery

Vagina: Tube inferior to the unterus; lies posterior to the urethra and anterior to the anus

• Fornix: superior portion of the vagina; surrounds the cervix
• Vaginal Rugae: ridges of the internal vaginal lining; permit stretching of the birth canal
• Vaginal Orifice: external opening of the vagina
• Vestibular Glands: pea shaped glands located on each side of the vagina; found deep to the labia majora

Vulva: Triangular shaped region consisting of...

• Mons Pubis: fatty tissue laying over the symphysis pubis
  
• Labia Majora: found lateral to the vaginal opening and continuous with the mons pubis
  
• Labia Minora: medial to the labia minora
• Clitoris: tissue found anterior to the urethral orifice
  
• Vestibule: space enclosed by labia minora; contains the vaginal and urethral openings

Perineum: Diamond shaped region containing the anal, vaginal and urethral openings

Breast: gland of milk secretion

• Mammary Glands: secretory structures
• Lactiferous Duct: passageway of milk from the mammary gland to the nipple

The Male Reproductive System

Scrotum: compartment external to the pelvic cavity; supports and protects the testes.

• Median Septum: Divides the scrotum into two compartments, one for each testis; serves as a protection shield if one testis becomes infected or cancerous.
• Dartos Muscle: smooth muscle found in the inner wall of the scrotum; functions to keep the testes three degrees below normal body temperature
• Cremaster Muscle: Skeletal muscle found deep to the dartos muscle; continuous with the internal abdominal oblique.

**Tennis Ball Analogy

• Tennis ball: Testis
• Tennis ball in sock: Dartos muscle
• Hand under sock: Cremaster muscle
  

Testis: paired oval shaped organ; sperm and hormone production

• Tunica Albuginea: Fibrous connective tissue layer that directly covers the testes
• Seminiferous Tubules: coiled sperm producing tubes within the lobes of the testis
• Efferent Ductules: take sperm from the seminiferous tubules to the epididymis

Epididymis: place where sperm mature; learn how to swim; "Swimming School"

Spermatic Cord: Cord composed of ductus deferens, cremaster muscle, testicular arteries, veins and nerves

Seminal Vesicle: secretes fructose to give sperm energy; lunch booth

Ejaculatory Duct: one inch long tube; formed by the union of the ductus deferens and seminal vesicle

Prostate Gland: lies inferior to the bladder

Bulbourethral Gland: lies inferior to the prostate; secretes mucus into the urethra

Urethra: Three separate areas...

• Prostatic Urethra: part that passes through the prostate
• Membranous Urethra: part that passes through the urogenital diaphragm
• Spongy Urethra: last and longest part that is located in the body of the penis

**Think P.M.S to remember these structures in order

Glans: enlarged terminal portion of the penis

Prepuce: continuous skin covering of glans; also known as the foreskin; removed by circumcision

Body of Penis: composed of three chambers of erectile tissue

• Corpora Cavernosa: paired columns
• Corpus Spongiosum: tissue that surrounds the spongy urethra
• Dorsal Veins: drain blood from the penis
• Deep Arteries: one locate in each corpora cavernosa; supply erectile bodies with blood
  

**So there you have it!!! With these notes and your dedication to the ol' anatomy open lab, you will be masters in no time of the urinary and reproductive systems. Don't miss out on the mock quiz in lab next week. It will be very much worth your time and energy. Good luck and happy studying!!!

The Digestive and Respiratory Systems

For the record, there are only 2 quizzes left in anatomy! Hooray!!! Okay, you can do your happy dance now. Time really flies when you are learning alot and working hard. We definitely do alot of work and learning in this class, especially memorizing. Just think, ever since this class started, you now know so much more than the average person. You can name the bones, the muscles and describe what happens during fetal circulation!!! Not many people can do that. You deserve a pat on the back!!! This week, our focus is on the Respiratory and Digestive systems. Looking at the terms, it may seem like a mouthful, but these structures are so much fun and there is much application to help in your learning.

The Respiratory and Digestive systems are amazing machines. Just think, without the respiratory system, you would not be able to wake up in the morning and smell the fresh morning air. Without the Digestive system, you would not be able to eat the foods you love!!! Now I love to eat, and what a sad world it would be if we could not enjoy the tastes from around the world. These two systems help us to enjoy alot of the simple things in life. Never take for granted the wonderful things your body allows you to do and experience. Now, here are some interesting facts to wrap your brain around:

The Respiratory System

• Our nose hairs help clean and warm the air that we breathe.
• The right lung is slightly larger than the left lung.
• The surface area of the lung is roughly the size of a tennis court.
• The capillaries in the lungs would extend 1600 kilometers if placed end to end.
• We lose half a liter of water a day through breathing. This is the water vapor we see when we breathe onto glass.

The Digestive System

• Two pints of saliva are produced each day.
• Muscles in the digestive tract contract in waves to move food along. So if you are standing on your head, food will still end up in your stomach.
• The small intestine is three grown men tall and two fingers wide.
• Food stays in your small intestine anywhere from one to four hours.
• We eat about 500 Kg per year
• The Pancreas produces digestive juices and helps in controlling blood sugar
• The Gall Bladder stores bile which helps in the digestion of dietary fat

**Now for some memorizing tid bits for the week!!!

Conducting Passages

Choanae: space between the nasal cavity and nasopharynx

Pharynx: divided into three regions

• nasopharynx: starts at the choanae and ends at the uvula (in the nasal region)
• oropharynx: starts at the uvula and ends at the level of the hyoid bone (think oral region)
• laryngopharynx: starts at the hyoid bone and ends at the bottom of the cricoid cartilage (the region where you find the larynx)

Tonsils: Lymphatic tissue

• tubal tonsil: forms around the opening of the auditory tube. Looks like a candy cane.
• pharyngeal tonsil: located on the posterior wall of the nasopharynx
• palatine tonsil: paired tonsils located at the back of the throat (usually removed)
• lingual tonsil: located on the posterior surface of the tongue (lingual means tongue)

Larynx: Continuous with the trachea; production of sound

• Thyroid Cartilage: big on the anterior side, small on the posterior side. Gives rise to the "Adam's apple."
• Cricoid Cartilage: small on the anterior side, big on the posterior side.
• Arytenoid Cartilage: superior to the cricoid cartilage on the posteior side. Forms a triangle and serves as attachment site for vocal cords
• Epiglottis: tissue that closes off the wind pipe to prevent choking

Mechanics of Pulmonary Ventilation

Internal Intercostal Muscles: can found on both the anterior and posterior sides of the rib cage. Muscles fibers point in an upwards direction

External Intercostal Muscles: can be found only on the anterior side of the rib cage. Muscles fibers point in a downwards direction.

The Mouth

Salivary Glands

• Parotid: located anterior to the ear. Largest of the salivary glands.
• Submandibular: located under the mandible. Sub in latin means "under"
• Subligual: located under the tongue

Serous Membranes

Mesentary Proper: peritoneum that holds the small intestines in place

Lesser Omentum: tissue that comes off of the lesser curvature of the stomach

Greater Omentum: tissue that comes off of the greater curvature of the stomach. Known as the apron that drapes over most of the abdominal organs.

Gastrointestinal Tube

Stomach

• Cardiac Sphincter: juction between the esophagus and the stomach
• Cardiac Region: region of stomach attached to the esophagus
• Fundus: dome shaped part of the stomach
• Body: middle region inferior to the fundus
• Gastric Rugae: folds on the inside stomach wall
• Pyloric Region: terminal portion of the stomach that leads to the small intestine
• Pyloric Sphincter: junction between the stomach and small intestine

Small Intestine

• Three regions; DONT JUMP IN -> Duodenum, Jejunum, Ileum
• Plicae Circulares: folds on the inside walls of the small intestine; contain micro villi
• Ileocecal valve: junction between the ileum and the cecum

Large Intestine

• Tenia Coli: shiny band of longitudinal muscle that runs along the entire large intestine. Acts like a draw sting to propel food along to the rectum.
• Haustra: bulges in the large intestine that is caused by the action of the tenia coli
• Epiploic Appendages: fat accumulations of visceral peritoneum on the large intestine
• Hepatic Flexure: Curve in the large intestine that is by the liver
• Splenic Flexure: Curve in the large intestine that is by the spleen
• Internal Anal Sphincter: inside walls of the anal canal; involuntary smooth muscle
• External Anal Sphincter: outside walls of the anal canal; voluntary skeletal muscle

Liver

• Common Hepatic Duct: fusion of the right and left hepatic ducts
• Common Bile Duct: fusion of the common hepatic duct and cystic duct
• Falciform Ligament: ligament that separates the right and left lobes of the liver

The Veins, Lymphatic system, Endocrine system, Fetal Circulation..."The List Goes On"

So you have conquered the heart and arteries. No big deal, right? Now you have other things to focus on....the veins. And to make your life more enjoyable, three extra body systems. By this point in the semester, you all are champions at the game of anatomy. Or you may just be burnt out of school, can't wait for the semester to end and wish that anatomy would be over right now. Not to worry, there are only 4 more lab weeks and 3 more quizzes. Wow, where has the time gone? Not to worry because this week, what you have to know really is not that bad when you put it to a good perspective. Let's take the veins for example. You may be thinking, "Man, I just got through memorizing the arteries...how can I do another whole load of veins?" Well, you are in luck. Arteries and veins all share the same name with a few minor exceptions. Pretty cool huh? So if you know where the axillary artery is, you will find the axillary vein laying right next to it. Oh, now you know what that dark purple thing was that was sitting next to the artery you learned last week. :)

A vital skill to have in anatomy, at least up to this point, is being able to recognize the difference between arteries, veins, and nerves. At first, they may look all the same but with practice it will become very evident which is which. This skill will be vital in your performance on the final midterm exam. You may name a term right, but if you do not denote whether it is a nerve, artery or vein correctly, you will lose points. This may seem intimidating right now, but with good practice and a little patience, it will come very easily to you. That is a solid promise I can make, but make sure you put in some good practice.

So here are a few pointers in denoting the difference between arteries, veins and nerves:

1. Arteries are pink and puffy. They hold their shape because their middle, called the tunica media, is thick and muscular.
2. Veins are dark and flat. They don't hold their shape like unto arteries because their tunica media is smaller. Also, the movement of blood back to the heart is controlled by muscle contraction.
3. Nerves are peach colored and striated. If you look closely on a nerve, you can see striations that denote the individual neurons. Remember their are only a handful of nerves that you need to know for this class. Master the nerves, and then you can be confident that everything else is an artery or vein.

**Take these pointers to heart and go study like mad in the open lab!!!

Now for a few ways to help make these terms stick to your brain:

The Veins - each branch is the beginning of a new name.

**Remember, all the veins share the same name as the arteries with a few exceptions.

Veins of the Arm

• Internal Jugular Vein: First branch off the subclavian vein and runs up the side of the neck.
• External Jugular Vein: Second branch off the subclavian vein and is lateral to the internal jugular vein.
• Cephalic Vein: Last branch off the subclavian vein; wraps around the pectoralis major muscle, runs along the lateral side of the arm and attaches on the radial side of the hand.
• Basilic Vein: Runs down the medial side of the arm and attaches onto the ulnar side.
• Median Cubital Vein: Lays anterior to the elbow and is the connection point of the cephalic and basilic vein. Most common spot to draw blood.

Veins of the Thoracic Cavity

• Azygos Vein: branch off the superior vena cava; receives blood from the posterior thoracic region.

Veins of the Abdominal Cavity

1. Hepatic Portal System: S.I.S. G (going from left to right)

• Superior Mesenteric Vein
• Inferior Mesenteric Vein
• Splenic Vein
• Gastric Vein

**All branches come off the hepatic portal vein. Similar to the celiac trunk in its many arterial branches.

• Gastro-omental (Gastroepiploic) Vein: any vein that you seen within the adipose tissue coming off the inferior portion of the stomach.

Veins of the Leg

• Great Saphenous Vein: You can't miss this one! The longest vein to be seen; originates on the femoral region and reaches all the way down and connects on the foot. Common vein extracted for bypass heart surgeries. Can survive without a great saphenous vein.

The Lymphatic System

• Thoracic Duct: Found posterior to the heart, between the esophagus and azygos vein. Drains lymph from the lower and left upper body into the left subclavian vein.
• Right Lymphatic Duct: Currently have no cadaver dissections. Drains lymph from the right upper body region.
• Cisterna Chyli: Found in the upper abdominal region between the inferior vena cava and descending aorta.
• Lymph Nodes: Located in the neck, armpit, thoracic, abdominal, pelvis and groin regions. Lymph is filtered in these regions.

The Endocrine System: Make sure you understand what each endocrine organ looks like and the hormones it secretes.

Anterior Pituitary Gland: F.L.A.T.P.G.M

• Follicle-Stimulating Hormone(FSH)
• Luteinizing Hormone(LH)
• Adrenocorticotropic Hormone(ACTH)
• Thyroid Stimulating Hormone(TSH)
• Prolactin(PRL)
• Growth Hormone(GH)
• Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone(MSH)

Posterior Pituitary Gland

• Oxytocin
• Antidiuretic Hormone(ADH)

Thyroid Hormone/Parathyroid Hormone

• Calcitonin: keeps calcium in the bone
• Parathyroid: Keeps calcium high: thy-high

Pancreas Hormones

• Glucagon: secreted when glucose is gone (increases blood sugar)
• Insulin: takes glucose in (decrease blood sugar)

Corticosteriods

• CACA: Corticosteroids -> Aldosterone -> Cortisol -> Androgens

Fetal Circulation

• Placenta: where maternal and fetal blood exchange, nutrients, waste products and gases
• Umbilical Cord: contains one vein and two arteries; the vein contains oxygen rich blood and the arteries contain oxygen poor blood.
• Ductus Venosus: bypasses the hepatic portal system in the liver
• Foramen Ovale: opening in the interatrial septum; bypasses the pulmonary circulation
• Ductus Arteriosus: sometimes blood will miss passing through the foramen ovale, so this structure will shunt blood that enters the pulmonary trunk into the aortic arch.

Adult Derivatives of Fetal Circulation

• Foreman Ovale = Fossa Ovalis
• Umbilical Vein(intra-abdominal part) = Ligamentum Teres
• Ductus Venosus = Ligamentum Venosum
• Umbilical arteries and abdominal ligaments = Medial umbilical ligaments and superior vesicular artery(supplies bladder)
• Ductus Arteriosus = Ligamentum Arteriosum

"From My Heart to Your Heart"

WOW!!! Students this past week completed their first big lab exam. Talk about intensity!!! The open lab was in operation every hour on the hour and was filled to capacity. Now that it is done and over with, students must kick themselves back into the gear and finish off strong their last few weeks. It is half way over now!!! Yet there is still much to learn and much more of the human body to explore. How exciting!!!

The focus of this weeks lab is the heart and arteries. These structures combined, compose of the machinery that carry oxygen rich blood to supply nourishment to many parts of the body. Your heart beats about 100,000 times in one day and about 35 million times in a year. During an average lifetime, the human heart will beat more than 2.5 billion times. Also, your body has about 5.6 liters (6 quarts) of blood. This 5.6 liters of blood circulates through the body three times every minute. In one day, the blood travels a total of 19,000 km (12,000 miles)-- that's four times the distance across the US from coast to coast. There is no machine like the heart!!! If one were to try and compose a machine that performed like the heart, it would break down in a manner of days due to overload and stress. It truly is amazing that with each day that passes by, our heart is working off the clock, 24/7.

The neat thing about this week is that some of the structures taught, you already know. Some were presented the very first week of class in lecture. Now it is a matter of digging out that old information and applying it now. Here are just a few things to remember to help you in your studies this week:

1. Know the pathway of blood well. It may sound unimportant, but those who know the pathway of blood, find it easier to master the heart structures. You have to know it for lecture too.
2. Know the body regions. When working with the arteries, they are all named by body region. Even though it looks like one continuous artery, different areas of the body change its name. They are like some streets; even though you don't turn off, their names still change. Here are a few examples:

• Axillary region: Axillary artery
• Brachial region: Brachial artery
• Femoral Region: Femoral artery
• Running under the clavicle: Subclavian artery

**Now for a few mnemonics and study tips...

Protective Layers of the Heart: think of the "fist in the balloon model."

• Outside of the balloon: Parietal Pericardium
• Space in between the balloon and hand: Pericardial Cavity
• Covering the fist: Visceral Pericardium (Epicardium)

**Think of the heart protective layers this way: from superficial to deep, their names go alphabetically.

Layers of the Heart

Epicardium: Outermost layer; interchanges its name with the visceral pericardium

Myocardium: muscular layer

Endocardium: fills the heart wall; contains several other structures

• Trabeculae Carne (Cross Bars of Flesh): look for the mesh networks of crossing tissue
• Chordae Tendinae: Chord-like
• Papillary muscle: anchors the Chordae Tendinae to the heart wall.

Heart Valves

Right atrioventricular (tricuspid) valve: (RAT) try to choose the right

Left atrioventricular (mitral or bicuspid) valve: (LAB or LAMB)

Pulmonary valve: valve directing blood from the right ventricle to the pulmonary trunk.

Aortic valve: valve directing blood from the left ventricle to the ascending aorta.

**Metal probe test: when studying the heart, take some time to place a metal probe through a valve and lay it down on a tray. You will observe that a metal probe in the tricuspid or bicuspid valve will lay straight up and down. A metal probe in the pulmonary or aortic valve will lay at an angle, either to the left or right.

Arteries in the Body

Arteries from the Aortic Arch

Ascending Aorta -> Brachiocephalic artery -> Left Common Carotid Artery -> Left Subclavian Artery

A B C 's

Intercostal Artery: "in" between the ribs (in the costal groove)

Internal Thoracic Artery: "inside" - internal side of the thoracic cage

**You can find this artery coming off the right subclavian artery and on the detached rib cage.

Celiac Trunk: the branches coming off the trunk fit to the saying of Salt Lake City.

1. Splenic Artery: Salt
   
2. Left Gastric Artery: Lake
   
3. Commom Hepatic Artery: City
   

Latin Origins of Structures

1. Gastric - Stomach
2. Pulmonary - Lungs
3. Coronary - Heart
4. Hepatic - Liver
5. Mesentery - Intestines
6. Renal - Kidney
7. Suprarenal - Adrenal Gland
8. Celiac - Abdominal
9. Axillary - Arm Pit
10. Popliteal - Knee Cap
11. Gonadal - Gonads
12. Femoral - Femur
13. Iliac - Ilium
14. Brachial - Upper Arm

**Well there you have it for this week!!! Remember that we start learning the veins next week. Lucky for you, most of the arteries we have just learned share the same name with the veins. So start now getting used to ending each term with artery, vein, nerve or vessels. This will become very important when it comes time for the final. These endings are a matter of whether or not you receive full credit, even if you technically got the answer right. Good luck in all your studies!!! Keep going, you are nearly half way done!!!

The Senses...Are you hearing this!?

Picture this...You are one week away from the midterm and you have the duty of recalling the last 5 weeks of anatomy structures. What is going through your head right now? Some may be thinking, "Oh, it won't be that bad," others may have the thought, "All those bones and muscles...that is so much to review," and others may just as well think, "This test is going to stomp me!" If there are anatomy students out there that currently have these thoughts, don't worry, it has happened to the best of us. Believe it or not, it happened to me when I took the class. My best advice I can give this week is as follows:

1. Study hard for the Central Nervous System quiz.
2. Once that is completed, use as much time as you can gather to be in the open lab reviewing the first 5 weeks of terms before Friday, February 19th at 1PM.
3. On Friday, February 19th, at 1PM, the midterm exam will be pinned and their will only be one room open for open lab.
4. Just a word of caution concerning this, with the midterm pinned, all you have to study from is at most two cadavers and specimens that are not being used on the test. Remember that the one open lab will be occupied all week by over 800 students.

**In a nut shell, do your best to start your review studies now and don't wait to the last minute to do so. The sooner you start, the better off you will be. Also, you will be much happier and who doesn't like to be happy?!

With that in mind, lets turn our attention to the material for this week, the Peripheral Nervous System. This week is full of so many fun and interesting structures. We have the cranial nerves that are responsible for most of our sensations, the structures of the eye and ear and also the major nerves of the brachial, femoral, gluteal and popliteal regions. It may seem like alot right now but as one begins to study these terms, one will soon find out just how much these structures help us enjoy the little beauties surrounding us. If that is not impressive enough wrap your mind around these interesting details. Did you know that the nose can remember over 50,000 different scents? Did you know that the eye has over 2 million working parts and can process over 36,000 bits of information every hour? Neat, huh!? The senses truly are extraordinary when considered on that kind of scale. Overall, the peripheral nerves, as tiny as they are, allow us to see life around us, taste great food, and hear the most beautiful sounds man and nature can create.

**As you marvel at the wonder of these creations, here are this week's study tips:

The 12 Cranial Nerves: There are a few sayings that you may hear to remember all 12 of these nerves. Here is the story I learned when I took the class:

On Old Olympus Towering Top, A Finely Vested German Viewed A Hawk

Olfactory(I), Optic(II), Oculomotor(III), Trochlear(IV), Trigeminal(V), Abducens(VI), Facial(VII), Vestibulocochlear(VIII), Glossopharyngeal(IX), Vagus(X), Accessory(XI), Hypoglossal(XII)

**Remember that all these names end in "nerve"

Things to note about the Cranial Nerves:

1. Vestibulocochlear nerve is two nerves running together. When studying this nerve, look for the one that is double barreled. It looks like it is coming out of Patrick's ear and this nerve's function is hearing.
2. Trochlear nerve originates at the base of the corpora quadrigemina and wraps around to the front of the pons. This one is a tiny thing so look closely for it!
3. Glossopharyngeal nerve rests above the Vestibulorcochlear nerve. Think of this nerve as being Patrick's glossy hair.
4. Facial nerve acts like Patrick's facial hairs.
5. Abducens nerve rests on Patrick's abdominal muscles.
6. Trigeminal nerve is Patrick's armpit hairs.
7. In Review, this is the order of a few nerves going from the base of the pons up the medulla oblongata: Oculomotor nerve, Abducens nerve, Trigeminal nerve, Facial nerve, Vestibulocochlear nerve, Glossopharyngeal nerve, Vagus nerve and Accessory nerve.

Brachial Plexus

**Look for the "M" nerve in the armpit region. Each leg of the "M" is a different nerve and it goes from lateral to medial according to this saying:

• Mickey Mouse University: Musculocutaneous nerve, Median nerve and Ulnar Nerve. The Radial Nerve dives deep into the "M" because it is too RAD to go to school.
• Musculocutaneous nerve dives deep into the brachial muscles.
• Median nerve is the central leg of the "M".
• Ulnar nerve is on the ulnar side of the arm.

The Eye

The Journey of a Tear:

1. lacrimal gland
2. excretory lacrimal ductules
3. lacrimal punctum: you can see this in your own eye; just look in a mirror, pull down your lower eyelid and look for the hole in the medial portion of the eye.
4. lacrimal canals
5. lacrimal sac
6. nasolacrimal duct: runs through the nasolacrimal canal in the skull.
7. Out the nose: This is why when your cry, your nose gets runny too!

Muscles of the Eye: a few pointers

1. Make sure to orient yourself with they eye specimens and understand what is the superior, inferior, lateral and medial portions of the eye.
2. Lacrimal gland is always lateral
3. Caruncle is always medial
4. On the Superior portion of the eye, the superior oblique is under the superior rectus
5. On the Inferior portion of the eye, the inferior oblique is over the inferior rectus
6. Trochlea: a loop-like piece of tissue that sits on the inside of the orbit and feeds the superior oblique like a pulley system.

Layers of the Eye

• From Superficial to Deep: Sclera, Choroid, Retina

Chambers of the Eye:

1. Anterior Chamber: Cornea to Iris
2. Posterior Chamber: Iris to Lens
3. These two chambers are filled with Aqueous Humor
4. Vitreous Chamber: Entire posterior segment of the eye, located between the posterior side of the lens and the retina
5. This chamber is filled with Vitreous Humor

The Ear

External Ear

• Auricle: Fleshy portion of the ear composed of elastic cartilage.

Middle Ear

• Auditory Ossicles: malleus(hammer), incus(anvil), stapes(saddle stirrup)
• Vestibular window: remember it as the oval window because the semicircular canals on the vestibule are oval shaped.
• Cochlear window: remember it as the round window because the cochlea is round shaped.

Inner Ear

• Vestibule: Innervated by the vestibular nerve; portion of the vestibulocochlear nerve
• Cochlea: Innervated by the cochlear nerve; portion of the vestibulocochlear nerve

Cross Section of the Cochlea

• The two pairs of "Scalas"
• Scala Vestibuli: wear your vest on top
• Scala Tympani: wear your pants on the bottom
• Both the "scalas" are filled with perilymph(Pair-e-lymph)
• Cochlear Duct is in between both "Scalas" and is filled with Endolymph
• Tectorial Membrane: resembles a diving board
• Spiral Organ of Corti: consists of ONLY the basilar membrane and the cochlear hair cells

** Have fun learning the senses and happy studying!!!

The Brain: Our Navigation Diamond.

We have finally made it to the brain!!! We can say so long to muscles for now but don't forget them too fast! The midterm exam is coming up in a couple of weeks. So keep up the studying and don't forget to start reviewing now! It truly is amazing how complex the human brain is. With a total weight of about 3 pounds, it is the initiator of practically everything we do in a days work. From the very moment one gets out of bed to the many hours one puts into this class, the brain is highly active and always working overtime. Did you know the brain is still functioning even while we sleep? It never takes a break!!! On average, information in your brain travels at a rate of about 268 miles per hour. Also, it is estimated that the brain has 100 billion nerve cells and more connections in it than there are stars in the universe, which is about the number of stars in the Milky Way Galaxy. Wow, the brain never ceases to amaze me!

This week in lab, our focus is the Central Nervous System. This system consists of the brain and the spinal cord. A good chunk of the terms you have probably heard before, but most are very new and unfamiliar I am sure. Whatever the case may be for you, with enough time and practice you will know more about the brain than ever before in your entire life. So with that, here are some tips and helpful mnemonics for you to use in your studies.

Week 5 Study Tips

1. The models are helpful, but make sure to study off of the specimens. Learn as many terms from as many brain dissections as you can. You are most likely going to be quizzed on the dissections only. Begin by orienting yourself by way of the models. As you get better and more advanced, move onto the specimens.
2. The Brain can be pinned from all sorts of angles. Think back to the very first week of anatomy. The body regions and planes were taught and we learned about the coronal and sagittal planes. These types of cuts are very popular to use in lab quizzes. If you can't find a good sagittal or coronal cut, talk to a TA and they will be able to pull out a good specimen to show you. There are some tricky pins in regards to this week. Be creative as you study!
3. Be very gentle with the brains! Brain tissue is very delicate and tears easily. Many, many hours go into preparing a brain specimen. Spray them frequently and be sure not to poke at them. One bad tear and overtime, a brain specimen will become harder and harder to learn from.

**So here are some terms for the week and ways to remember them!!!

Cerebrum: Cerebro (X-men) sits on your cerebrum...or just think the biggest part of the brain.

• Genu: the genius' sit in the front
• Splenium: it's splendid to sit in the back

Cerebellum: sits at the base of the Cerebrum

• Arbor Vitae: "Tree of Life" - resembles a tree
  
• Vermis: Vermin that peeks out of his hole - the connection between the two cerebellar hemispheres

The "Duck" Picture

• Thalamus: duck's head
• Interthalamic Adhesion: duck's eye
• Hypothalamus: duck's beak
• Infundibulum: straw coming out of the duck's beak
• Pituitary Gland: bubble on the end of the straw, if the duck were to spit he would saw "pituey"
• Pineal Gland: feather on the back of the duck's head. You will be able to study this structure best on a sagittal cut brain and a brain with a removed cerebellum.

**Or another way to think about the infundibulum and the pituitary gland - it is FUN to blow bubbles!!!

The Troll/Patrick the Star Fish Picture (The one you have all been waiting for!!!)

• Pons: Troll's body
• Medulla Oblongata: Troll's head
• Cerebral Peduncles: Troll's legs
• Cerebellar Pedencles: Troll's arms
• Corpora Quadrigemina: Troll's calfs (Gastrocnemius)

The Spinal Cord

• Anterior Median Fissure: All Men Fear
• Posterior Median Sulcus: P-M-S

Gray and White Matter

• The Brain is like a Twinkie: Gray Matter on the outside (cake), White Matter on the inside (cream filling).
• The Spinal cord is like a corn dog: Gray Matter on the inside (meat), White Matter on the outside (bun).

**Remember: Gray Matter consists of axon cell bodies and White Matter consists of myelinated axons. In the brain, there are nerve impulses going into it, and in the spinal cord there are nerve impulses going away from it.

Meninges: The covering of the brain

• Dura Mater: tough mother
• Arachnoid Mater: spider-like
• Pia Mater: gentle mother

**Note: The Pia Mater cannot be physically separated from the brain tissue. If pinned on a quiz, there will be a pin going into the brain and a question asking, "What mater is the pin going through?"

Reflex Arc

• Sensory Afferent Neuron: sense someone looking at your back.
• Motor Efferent Neuron: drive a motor-vehicle in the front.

Remember to think SAME DAVE

• Sensory Afferent, Motor Efferent
• Dorsal Afferent, Ventral Efferent

Ventricles: producers of Cerebral Spinal Fluid

• Lateral Ventricle: Inside the space of the corpus callosum
• Septum Pellucidum: Membrane sheath that divides the two lateral ventricles
• Third Ventricle: Around the Thalamus
• Fourth Ventricle: Anterior to the Cerebellum
• Mesencephalic (Cerebral) Aqueduct: Tube connecting the third and fourth ventricles
• Choroid Plexus: Tiny grape-like structures, found in the ventricles, that make cerebral spinal fluid.

**I hope this helps. Good luck studying this week and don't forget to review for the midterm and little bit every day. Happy Studying!!!

Fun Fact for the Day:

• The Superior Colliculus, of the Corpora Quadrigemina, is responsible for turning our head with a sight we see.
• The Inferior Colliculus, of the Corpora Quadrigemina, is responsible for turning our head with a sound we hear.

Muscles, Muscles and More Muscles!

You did it!!! You survived your first week of muscles! Now you can take a breather from that nasty forearm, and start up again with more muscles. Only this time, our focus is the lower limbs of the body. Now I know that the upper muscles, especially the forearm, was alot to take in during a 2 hour lab period. You may be wondering if you can handle another whole week of muscles. Well, the great thing is, now that you have been exposed to the material once, the second time around, the lower muscles won't seem that bad at all. You will be surprised when you see how much easier the lower muscles come just from having finished learning the upper muscles. I can promise you that!!! I had a chance to talk to a few of my students after the lower muscles lab, and they all agreed that the lower muscles were easier to grasp the first time than the upper muscles. So there is no need to fear! I know that all of you can master these terms with a little dedication and open lab attendence!

Well, now that I am done with my pep talk, here are some study tips and ways to remember all the terms for the lower muscles. Keep in mind the previous weeks study tips for the upper muscles and you will have so much fun in your studies this week!

Abdominal Wall
Linea Alba: Think of the albino(white) line running down the middle of the abdomen.
**Or a popular favorite...Jessica Alba has good abs.

Vertebral Column
Spinalis->Longissimus->Iliocostalis
Salt Lake International

Femur
Tensor faciae latae: there once was a girl who was tense into fashion and she held a latte in her hand while placing her hand on her hip.
**The hand of the hip part lets you know where in the body this muscle is.

Sartorius: notorius for being the longest muscle in the body.

Rectus Femoris: the term rectus means straight up and down.
**Take a moment in open lab to observe the up and down muscle fibers of the rectus femoris.

Vastus Lateralis, Vastus Medialis and Vastus intermedius
**Alice's on the sides and us in the middle

Gracilis: When someone sitting next to you rubs the inside of your leg you can say gracias or no gracias. (you decide!)

Order of the inner thigh muscles from inferior to superior
Gracilis->Adductor Magnus->Adductor Longus->Adductor Brevis->Pectineus
**Great Major League Baseball Players

The Posteior Aspect (aka: The Bottom)
Gluteus Maximus->Gluteus Medius->Gluteus minimus->Piriformis->
Superior Gemellus->Obturator Internus->Inferior Gamellus-> Obturator Externus->Quadratus Femoris
**Gotta Gotta Gotta Pee G.O. G.O. Quickly

Hamstrings
Adductor Magnus and Semimembranosus
**If you eat M&M's they go straight to your inner thighs (medial)

Semitendinosus: It is the only hamstring muscle that has a long tendon. This tendon wraps around the medial side of the tibia and inserts medial to the tibial tuberosity(pes anserinus).

Biceps Femoris: The most lateral hamstring muscle and it has two heads.

Lower Leg
Plantaris and Soleus: plant your seeds in the soil
Popliteus: you pop your knee in (medial)
Calcaneal Tendon: Achilles' tendon

Lower Leg Story Rules
Digitorum: digits (toes)
Hallucis: big toe
Peroneus (fibularis): fibula
Tibialis: tibia
Extensor vs. Flexor (make sure you understand this well!!)

• Remember, it is similar to the hand. You will find the flexor leg muscles on the medial malleolus side and the extensor muscles on the lateral malleolus side.
• The Story begins with teh Tibialis Posterior and ends with the Tibialis Anterior.
• Tom, Dick and Harry are men and they meet at the medial malleolus.

Tibialis Posterior->Flexor Digitorum Longus->Flexor Hallucis Longus->Calcaneal Tendon->Peroneus Brevis->Peroneus Longus->Peroneus Tertius->Extensor Digitorum Longus->Extensor Hallucis Longus->Tibialis Anterior

**Tom, Dick and Harry went around the Calcaneal corner to get a Peroneus B.L.T. During Half Time.

Okay, I hope this helps in your studies this next week!!! Go to the open lab as often as time permits for you. You are almost done with the muscles but don't let them slip your head too fast. The lab midterm is in just a few weeks. If you feel comfortable with the terms for your lower muscles quiz, take a few minutes to review the bones and upper muscles. You will be so happy when you do. Happy Studying!!!

**Here is a random muscles fact for the week!!!

When walking down the street you use over 200 muscles. Challenge yourself and see if you can name a few.

The Muscular System: The Body's Powerhouse!!

Hello to all anatomy lovers!!! We just completed our last bones quiz and now we can say so long for a little while!! Yeah!!! We are off to bigger and better things; the muscles. It was quite the experience this past week having a first good look at the cadavers. Most my students would ask me, "How do you tell the muscles apart? They all look the same to me!" Well, as your TA I have a few tricks up my sleeve, most of which I am sure will be of great benefit to you. But let me be honest, I had the exact same thoughts cross my head when I first took the class too. So here are some things to remember when studying and learning the muscles:

1) Look for the muscles striations. When you do this you will be able to see the boundaries and tell how many muscles are in a certain area.

2) Pay attention to the muscle names. Most names give you lots of information regarding where the muscle is in the body. Here are a few examples:

Sternocleidomastoid: Tells you the origin and the insertion of the muscle all in its name. Originates on the sternum and clavicle and inserts behind the ear on the mastoid process.

Frontalis: Tells you which bone it sits on; the frontal bone.

Supraspinatus: Another muscle that tells you right where it is; the supraspinous fossa of the scapula.

Biceps Brachii: A few muscles on the arm have one or two heads. In open lab see if you can find the two heads of the biceps brachii. One goes to the supraglenoid tubercle and the other goes to the coracoid process. Both heads then join at the insertion which is the radial tuberosity of the radius bone.

These are just a few examples of some muscles that give hints as to where they are on the body. As you study, take a few moments to find a connection between where a muscle sits in the body and its name. You will be surprised how much faster you learn!

3) With regards to the forearm muscles, here are some things to always remember:
Longus = long tendon
Brevis = short tendon. Brevis muscles can usually be seen on both sides of the longus tendon.
Carpi = carpals (wrist). The term carpi always comes before radialis or ulnaris in the name. (example: extensor carpi ulnaris and flexor carpi radialis)
Digitorum = digits (fingers). These muscles can always be found in between the radialis and ulnaris muscles on the flexor and extensor sides of the forearm.
Pollicis = thumb
Ulnaris = ulna
Radialis = radius
Remember Extensor vs Flexor. Always remember that in anatomical position, extensor muscles will be on the posterior side and flexor muscles will be on the anterior side. (Review: Anterior means toward the front of the body and posterior means toward the back of the body. Anatomical position means that you are standing upright, your feet are parallel and flat on the floor, your head is level with your eyes facing forward, arms are at your sides with your palms facing anteriorly and your thumbs are pointing laterally or away from the body.)

Now here are a few fun mnemonics to help you in remembering all these muscles. If you think of any new ones or different ways to remember the names, let me know by leaving a blog post!

Epicranius
Galea Aponeurotica: Gay (happy) Ape scratches the top of his head
Corrugator Supercilii: An interrogator would eye you down while interviewing you

Circular Muscles: Orbit - Circular
Orbicularis oculi: oculi - eye
Orbicularis oris: oral - mouth

Muscles of the Neck
Semispinalis: semi spine (directly above spine)
**You can only semi see the semispinalis
Splenius capitis: location of receiving a splendid massage

Depressors
Depressor labii inferioris: frowning muscles; forms the rainbow under your lips
Depressor anguli oris: the triangular muscles at the corners of your mouth

Scapular Muscles
Rhomboids: resembles a rhombus
Serratus Anterior: think of the serrated edge of a saw
Latissiums dorsi: dorsal (posterior)

Upper Arm
Biceps brachii: two headed
Triceps brachii: three headed
Anconeus: resembles a cone
Brachioradialis: extends from the brachial region to the radial region

The 5 Member Family: Begins and ends with longus: longus, brevis, longus, brevis, longus
Extensor carpi radialis longus: tall twin
Extensor carpi radialis brevis: short twin
Abductor pollicis longus: awkward third child that gets abducted (only abductor)
Extensor pollicis brevis: extends the thumb
Extensor pollicis longus: extends the thumb

There you have it!! I hope these help for you quiz on the upper muscles. If you have any suggestions to make these posts better, please let me know. Happy studying!!!

The Skeletal System: The Framework of Our Bodies

A couple weeks have come and gone in the beautiful world of anatomy and students all over BYU have learned over 240 bones in the body. Wow that's a lot!!! Now the trick is, how do I remember all of these bones in preparation for the midterm? Well here is the trick...open lab, open lab and more open lab. It may seem tedious but that is the trick. As you go into the future weeks take some time to review the bones so they are sharp in your head. You will be much happier with your test results too! Lets not forget your mnemonic devices!!! You have been taught many ways in which to master all these bumps and holes that we call bones in the body. One of my personal favorites is the cowboy story, which is used to specify all those hard holes in the skull. For a refresher, here is how it works:

THE COWBOY STORY

Let's call our cowboy Turk (he sits on the SELLA TURCICA)
He will throw his lasso down the sides of his saddle (FORAMEN LACERUM)
He will look out through the OPTIC FORAMEN
He will look out over the valley to watch over his cattle (FORAMEN OVALE)
And it will be over that valley that he will round them up (FORAMEN ROTUNDUM)
For healthy snack he will take out a carrot which is behind his lasso (CAROTID CANAL)
And for a treat he will take out his jelly beans (JUGULAR FORAMEN)
At the end of a long days work he will spit and shine his shoes (FORAMEN SPINOSUM)

So there you have the bulk of all those mysterious holes in the skull. As you remember the cowboy story I guarantee you will never go wrong!!

Here are some other mnemonic devices you can use to review other bones:

1. Cervical Vertebrae: the anteater; only vertebrae with transverse foreman
2. Thoracic Vertebrae: the giraffe; vertebrae with the costal facet and demifacet
3. Lumbar Vertebrae: the moose; bulkiest members of the vertebrae with articular processes facing towards each other
**To remember how much of each vertebrae we have just think of the times you eat breakfast, lunch and dinner. (7, 12 and 5)

4. Hand bones: Sally Left The Party To Take Clark Home

5. Foot Bones: Cal can Tell us about Cute boys in Navy Uniforms

Here are some ways to distinguish left and right bones:

6. Clavicle: Just think Connie down in the outback
7. Radius: Use the fist test
8. Ulna: Look for the radial notch and make sure it is facing laterally
9. Os Coxa: Use the phone test; if you can talk into it, you've got it on the right side!!
10. Patella: Lay it flat on the table with apex pointing away from you and look to which side it is leaning.
11. Tibia: Look for the medial malleolus and make sure it is MEDIAL.
12. Fibula: Use the walking test or my personal favorite the race care test

More fun and games to come!! Keep studying hard and in my future posts, I will include practice tests questions for the lecture portion of the anatomy class. Now here are your bone facts of the day...

**Humans are born with 300 bones in their body, however when a person reaches adulthood they only have 206 bones. This occurs because many of them join together to make a single bone...also your femur bone is stronger than concrete!!!

Happy Studying!!!!

Welcome to all who love anatomy!!!

Welcome, welcome to the human body experience. During the course of the next several weeks I will be doing a crash course in human anatomy. Many topics will range from the skeletal system all the way to the digestive and reproductive systems. Stay tuned for tips to succeed in your own classes, interesting facts, practice problems and ways to remember all the millions of terms you will learn. Anatomy is an experience that will change your life. It will give you a sense of wonder and overall appreciation for your own body. Happy studying!!!